Definition of Alternatives

The concept of alternatives to animal testing was created and defined by Russell and Burch (1959). They identified three types of alternatives: reduction, refinement, and replacement (commonly known as the three R's). Reduction refers to the number of animals used, refinement refers to the minimization of pain and distress in test animals, and replacement refers to using non-animal models instead of animals or using non-mammalian or inverterbrate animals in place of "higher" animals. For example, an improved method for drawing blood which minimizes pain and distress is a refinement alternative. A factorial experimental design that lowers the number of test animals needed without sacrificing statistical rigor is an example of reduction. An in vitro test such as using a protein matrix for predicting ocular irritation is an example of a replacement alternative for the Draize eye test in rabbits. For a more thorough review of the three concepts, as well as the Animal Welfare Act and the role of the IACUC, consult Essentials for Animal Research - A Primer for Research Personnel.

References
Russell,W. and R. Burch. 1959. The Principles of Experimental Technique. Methuen and Co., London.

Article Databases for Alternatives

There are a few considerations to think about before beginning a search. Always remember the 3 R's; look for ways to refine, reduce, or replace animal testing. The USDA Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC) recommends that more than one database be searched, since no single database is likely to contain all available information on a topic. The choice of databases will depend on the specific research topic. Below is a list of relevant databases available from the UM Libraries with descriptions of the subjects covered by each.

• AGRICOLA - Covers 1970 to the present. Contains bibliographic information on animal care and welfare topics for laboratory animals, zoo animals, and livestock including: animal care and handling, humane treatment, animal rights, alternatives to animal testing, and laws and regulations.
• Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS) - Covers biology from 1996 to the present. Subjects include all areas of biology.
• Google Scholar - if using from on campus, look for the "Get It @ UM Libraries" link. From off campus, change your Scholar Preferences to include the Univesity of Mississippi Libraries.
• Inspec - Covers 1962 to the present. Use mainly for computer simulation topics; Inspec is the primary database for physics, electrical engineering, and computer science.
• International Pharmaceutical Abstracts - Covers 1970 to the present. All areas of pharmacy are included.
• MathSciNet - Covers 1940 to the present. Includes all subjects in pure and applied math; use mainly for experimental design.
• Medline - Covers 1966 to the present. All areas of medical research are included.
• PsycINFO - Covers 1887 to the present. Indexes all subjects in psychology. It should be considered particularly for behavioral research.
• SciFinder Scholar - Covers 1967 to the present. Includes all areas in chemistry. See the Chemistry Subject Guide for more information.
• Web of Science - Bibliographic information and cited references across the sciences. Includes Science Citation Index and Social Sciences Citation Index from 1981-Present.

Other Print and Online Resources for Alternatives

Items followed by a call number are available in UM Libraries. Use Interlibrary Loan to borrow others.

Acute toxicity testing : alternative approaches / editor, Alan M. Goldberg. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, c1984. Science Library RA1199 .A4 v.2

Acute toxicology testing. Gad, Shayne C.2nd ed. San Diego : Academic Press. 1998. Science Library RA1199.4.A38 G33 1998

Advances in animal alternatives for safety and efficacy testing. Washington, D.C. : Taylor & Francis, 1998 . ISBN 1560326239.

ALTBIB: Bibliography on Alternatives to Animal Testing. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Alternative methodologies for the safety evaluation of chemicals in the cosmetic industry / Nicola Loprieno. Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press, c1995. Science Library RA1270.C65 L67 1995

Alternative toxicological methods / Salem, Harry,; Katz, Sidney A. Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press, 2003

Alternatives to animal dissection in school science classes [microform] / David L. Haury. [Columbus, Ohio] : ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education, [1996].Government Publications. ED 1.310/2:402155

Alternatives to animal testing / Hester, R. E.; Harrison, Roy M. Cambridge : Royal Society of Chemistry, 2006. Science Library
RA1199.4.A46 A48 2006.

Alternatives to animal use in research, testing, and education / Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States. 1986.

Alternatives to Skin Irritation Testing in Animals

Alternatives to the use of animals in higher education. Nottingham, UK : Published by Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments for European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods, 1999 . OCLC 42972286

Alternatives to the use of live vertebrates in Biomedical Research and testing. A bibliography with abstracts. Bethesda, MD : National Library of Medicine. 1997 OCLC 36918326

American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS)

Animal experiments in medical research : reduction, refinement, and replacement. Groningen : Central Animal Laboratory, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, the Netherlands, 1998 . ISBN: 9080285935 .

Animal Pain. Charles E. Short, Alan Van Poznak, eds. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1992. ISBN 0443087725 .

Animal Pain: Perception and Alleviation. Ralph L. Kitchell, Howard H. Erickson, eds., E. Carstens, Lloyd E. Davis, assoc. eds. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society; Baltimore, MD: Distributed by Williams & Wilkins, 1983. Main Library QP451.4 .A54 1983

Animal Test Alternatives: Refinement, Reduction, Replacement. Harry Salem, ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1995.

Animal Welfare Act and Regulations. USDA .

Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC). USDA.

Animals and alternatives in toxicity testing / edited by Michael Balls, Rosemary J. Riddell, and Alastair N. Worden. London : Academic Press, 1983. Science Library RA1199 .A55 1982

Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International

AWIC tips for searching for alternatives to animal research and testing. Cynthia Smith. [Washington DC : The Center?]. 1992. OCLC 37533439

Biological models in radiopharmaceutical development / by Richard M. Lambrecht. Dordrecht ; Boston : Kluwer Academic Publishers, c1996. Science Library RM833 .L36 1996

Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and National Institutes of Health. 2nd ed. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. 1999. Government Publications HE 20.7002:B 52/999

Cell culture models as alternatives to animal experimentation for the testing of neuroprotective compounds in stroke research : practical handbook of methods. Jülich : Forschungszentrum, 1999 ISBN 3893362509

CRC handbook of laboratory animal science / editors, Edward C. Melby, Jr., Norman H. Altman. Cleveland : CRC Press, [1974-76]. 3 vols. Science Library Reference. QL55 .M45

A Critical evaluation of alternatives to acute ocular irritation testing / John M. Frazier ... [et al.] ; with special assistance in the preparation of chapter 5, Dale R. Meyer. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, c1987. Science Library RA1199 .A4 v.4

Development of an in vitro neurotoxicity assay / Mary L. Barth and Rudy J. Richardson. Research Triangle Park, NC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory ; Cincinnati, OH : Center for Environmental Research Information [distributor]. 1981. Government Publications EP 1.89/2:As 7

Directory of Resources on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences. Beltsville, MD: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1998. Government Publications A 17.27/3:

Discussion of alternatives to the draize eye irritancy test. M.G. Prior. Vegreville, Alberta : Alberta Environmental Centre, 1993. ISBN 0773211985.

Dogs: Laboratory Animal Management/Committee on Dogs, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994.

Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 1991. Main Library SF 406 E38 1991

Essentials for Animal Research: A Primer for Research Personnel. B. T. Bennett, M. J. Brown, and J. C. Schofield. Beltsville, Maryland: National Agriculture Library. April 1990. Government Publications Microforms A 17.22:R 31

Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, National Research Council, Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, 1985 Government Documents HE 2.3008 An 5/985

Handbook of laboratory animal science / : edited by Per Svendsen and Jann Hau. Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 1994. 2 vols. Science Library Reference QL55 .H36 1994

Handbook of Laboratory Animal Management and Welfare. Sarah Wolfensohn and Maggie Lloyd. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

The human use of animals : case studies in ethical choice / F. Barbara Orlans ... [et al.] New York : Oxford University Press, 1998 Main Library HV4915 .H85 1998

Implementing in vitro test models in the hazard identification and risk assessment process [microform] / Bellina Veronesi and Luz Claudio. [Washington, D.C. : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992?]. Government Publications Microforms EP 1.23/6:600/A-92/113

Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991. Main Library SF 996.5 I54 1991

In the name of science : issues in responsible animal experimentation / F. Barbara Orlans. New York : Oxford University Press, 1993. Main Library HV4915 .O75 1993

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Introduction to in vitro cytotoxicology : mechanisms and methods / Frank A. Barile. Boca Raton : CRC Press, c1994 Science Library RA1199.4.I5 B37 1994

In vitro and ex vivo test systems to rationalize drug design and delivery, European symposium, Paris, 13 and 14 December 1993. Paris : Editions de Santé, 1994. ISBN 2864110784.

In vitro and in vivo mutagenicity studies of environmental chemicals / David C.L. Jones ...[et al.]. Research Triangle Park, NC : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory ; Cincinnati, OH : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Research Information [distributor], 1984. Government Publications EP 1.89/2:600/S 1-84-003

In vitro embryotoxicity and teratogenicity tests / Joint American-Swiss Seminar on Alternative Embryotoxicity and Teratogenicity Tests, Zurich, November 12, 1984 ; volume editors, Freddy Homburger, Alan M. Goldberg. Basel ; New York : Karger, 1985. Main Library RA1199 .J65 1984

In vitro-in vivo correlations / edited by David Young, John G. Devane, and Jackie Butler. New York : Plenum Press, c1997. Science Library RS189 .I438 1997

In vitro methods in toxicology / edited by C.K. Atterwill and C.E. Steele. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1987. Science Library RA1199.4.I5 V58 1987

In vitro methods of toxicology / Ronald R. Watson, editor. Boca Raton : CRC Press, c1992. Science Library RA1199.4.I5 I49 1992

In vitro percutaneous absorption : principles, fundamentals, and applications / editors, Robert L. Bronaugh, Howard I. Maibach. Boca Raton : CRC Press, c1991. Science Library QP88.5 .I46 1991

In vitro skin toxicology : irritation, phototoxicity, sensitization. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0913113654.

In vitro techniques in research : recent advances / edited by J.W. Payne. Milton Keynes : Open University Press, in association with the Humane Research Trust, 1989. Science Library R853.T58 I5 1989

In vitro toxicity testing of environmental agents : current and future possibilities / edited by Alan R. Kolber ... [et al.] New York : Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division [ by] Plenum Press, c1983-. Science Library RA565.A2 N37 1979

In vitro toxicology : approaches to validation / editor, Alan M. Goldberg. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., 1987 Science Library RA1199 .A4 v.5

In vitro toxicology : a progress report from the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing / editor, Alan M. Goldberg. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, c1985. Science Library RA1199 .A4 v. 3

In vitro toxicology : mechanisms and new technology. New York : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0913113549.

Lab Animal (peer reviewed journal)

Laboratory Animal Anaesthesia: A Practical Introduction for Research Workers and Technicians. P. A. Flecknell. London: Academic Press,1996. Science Library SF 77 F54 1989

Laboratory Animal Medicine. James G. Fox, Bennett J. Cohen, Franklin M. Loew, eds. Orlando, Fla: Academic Press. 1984. Main Library SF 996.5 L33 1984

Laboratory Animal Technologist. Dennis M. Stark and Marshall E. Ostrow, eds., written and reviewed by members of AALAS. Cordova, Tenn.: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 1991. (Volumes 1-3)

Laboratory Animal Welfare: A Guide to Reference Tools, Legal Materials, Organizations, Federal Agencies. Cheryl Rae Nyberg, Maria A. Porta and Carol Boast. Twin Falls, ID: BN Books, 1994.

Microscale testing in aquatic toxicology : advances, techniques, and practice / edited by Peter G. Wells, Kenneth Lee, Christian Blaise ; with the assistance of Johanne Gauthier. Boca Raton : CRC Press, c1998. Science Library QH90.57.B5 M535 1998

Neurotoxicology : approaches and methods / Louis W. Chang, editor, ; William Slikker, Jr., coeditor. San Diego : Academic Press, c1995. Science Library RC347.5 .N485 1995

Non-animal techniques in biomedical and behavioral research and testing. Boca Raton : Lewis Publishers,1993. ISBN 0873715047.

NORINA Database - Audiovisual alternatives to the use of animals in teaching.

Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The Principles of Experimental Technique. Russell,W. and R. Burch. Methuen and Co., London. 1959.

Principles of Laboratory Animal Science: A Contribution to the Humane Use and Care of Animals and to the Quality of Experimental Results. L.F.M. van Zutphen, V. Baumans and A.C.Beynen, eds. New York: Elsevier, 1993.

Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Office for Protection from Research Risks (OPRR), National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, Maryland: OPRR. 1986 (revised). Government Publications. HE 20.3002:L 11/3

Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992.

Replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments in the development and control of biological products. Basel ; New York : Karger, 1996. ISBN 3805562608

Resources for Comparative Biomedical Research: A Directory of the DDR Animal Resources Program: A Publication of National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, Md.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. April, 1991.

Scientists Centre for Animal Welfare

Searching AGRICOLA for-- animal welfare / Karen Clingerman, Carol Dowling, and Janice Swanson. Beltsville, Md. : National Agricultural Library, [1990]. Government Publications A 17.25:03

Science, Medicine, and Animals. Committee on the Use of Animals in Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 1991. Main Library HV 4915 S35 1991

Scientific criteria for validation of in vitro toxicity tests. John M. Frazier. [Paris?] : Environment Directorate, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1990. OCLC 24798235.

Small animal pain management. Carroll, Gwendolyn L. Lakewood, Colo. : AAHA Press, 1998. ISBN 0941451690.

The status of alternative methods in toxicology. Diane Anderson. Cambridge UK : Royal Society of Chemistry, 1995. ISBN 0854044043.

Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and Applications to Welfare. Alistair B. Lawrence and Jeffrey Rushen, eds. Wallingford, England: CAB International, 1993.

Textbook of in vitro practical pharmacology / Ian Kitchen. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific, 1984.Science Library RM103 .K57 1984

Toxicity assessment alternatives : methods, issues, opportunities. Totowa, N.J. : Humana Press, 1999. Science Library RA1199 .T684 1999

Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council [and] Institute of Medicine. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988. Main Library QL 55 .U74 1988

Using Animals in Intramural Research: Guidelines for Investigators and Guidelines for Animal Users. Bethesda, MD: NIH Animal Research Advisory Committee, NIH Office of Animal Care and Use, 1994. Government Publications HE 20.3008:AN 5/3/ 2000

Ways of minimising pain and distress in animals in research : practical information for research scientists and animal experimentation ethics committees. Canberra, ACT : National Health and Medical Research Council, Animal Welfare Committee, 1994. ISBN 0644331658.